p-Atlantic-Congo Pr. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian) : vowels, tone, consonants, and vocabulary / Christopher Ehret Get this Comments (0) Librarian's View Copyright Status Online In the Library Order a copy Request this item to view in the Library's reading rooms using your library card. You guys might disagree with the results form the Shum Laka paper but don't distort their own interpretations of their findings. [30] For most branches, the first person pronouns contain a nasal consonant (n, m), whereas the third person displays a sibilant consonant (s, sh). Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. . Pp. [47] Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology. innovation: narrowing of meaning to particular kind of joining, by sewing), to split in two, split one from the other, (proposed source: #502, with regular PAA * > PBA *n; Eg., Berber, Sem. [34] Cushitic does not appear to be related to the attested ancient languages known from its area, Meroitic or Old Nubian. A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician Judah ibn Quraysh, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies. . ), to become thoroughly wet, pour heavily (intr. shared innovation: n. for 'clay'), great (especially in size but also in number), (Ch., Eg., Sem. Bendi [97] All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. Dictionary - Vladimir E. Orel 2015-11-02 This dictionary is a fundamental source of information on the extinct proto-language of the ancient Hamito-Semites, the Proto-Hamito-Semitic language, and . [89] Igor Diakonoff argues that the requirement to begin with a vowel goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic. innovation: narrowing of meaning to beating time to music), (Eg., Sem. SOm stat. : *itsim-), (2nd root shape: possible old tr. SLEC Som. [192] Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. p-Agaw [130][164] In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a "stative conjugation", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. [99] In all AA languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. North Germanic includes Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian. [186] Within the Semitic language family, Lipiski counts four different roots meaning "one". Adapted from Ruhlen 1987. Natioro [3] The phylum has six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic. reflex), (root #723 + *x extend. . Continue Reading 5 Brian Collins [30] A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of "independent" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. [54] These five or six branches remain the academic consensus on the family. Hadza, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Appendix:Proto-Afroasiatic_reconstructions&oldid=68902118, attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix, attributive and complement deverbative suffix, noun derivation from verb by stem-vowel lengthening, (Sem., Eg. p-Omotic rather than the subject and object. Omotic and Cushitic followed the example and split together, as did Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic in another group. derivation by addition of *-u- tr. Rashad Their range extended from the Benue Trough and Lake Chad, to the Nile Valley, the Indus Valley, and Southern Europe during the African Aqualithic Period. [49][48] Arabic, spoken in both Asia and Africa, has around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic has around 25 million. This is in part due to Boroafrasian speakers breaking into groups such as Berber and Egyptian in North Africa and Semitic dialects in the Arabian Peninsula. The Proto-Afroasiatic Vowel System" In The Nostratic Macrofamily: A Study in Distant Linguistic Relationship, 105-108. p-Khoe Theodor Benfy found that Egyptian and Semitic languages were similar in 1844, and he classified them under the Semito-Hamitic language family. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1996. [68] On the other hand, the classification relied on anthropological and racial features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle. [77], Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic. !Kung, Bangime [106] The most widespread constraint is against two different labial consonants (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. Summary of Numbered Sound Shift Rules; Index 1. [66], Meinhof's version of the "Hamitic theory" remained prevalent until the 1940s, when it was definitively disproved by Joseph Greenberg. velar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals; This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 01:29. However, not one of Militarev's proposed 32 agricultural roots can be considered diagnostic of cultivation. Proposed specific locations include the Horn of Africa, Egypt, the eastern Sahara, and the Levant. Published 1995 Linguistics This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). [6] shared innovation: 'raise' > 'lift, pick up'; probable further Ch., Eg., Sem. [167] These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual languages varies. ; Sem., Eg. [83], A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic,[78] most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. suff. Great variety is incorporated in one family and this makes Afro-Asiatic an interesting topic of study. Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . [121] This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,[153] and is particularly noticeable in the triliteral Semitic verb. [193][194], Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. p-Chadic [17][18] Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label "Hamito-Semitic" is at this point simply convention and no more implies an opposition between Semitic and "Hamitic" languages than "Indo-European" implies a "European" and an Indic branch. + stem; PS *lisn 'tongue' is a separate and distinct derivation from the same verb root), (Sem., Eg., Ch. bw 'plant used in medicine' (med) Central Chadic: *abay 'leaf' Proto-Afro-Asiatic: * (a-)bil- Meaning: door Semitic: *abul- 'door, gate' Western Chadic: *HVbil- 'door' Central Cushitic (Agaw): *bil- 'door' 1, 'hole, window' 2 2.10. Semitic and Berber are quite closely related, and both are more distantly connected to Cushitic. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques. [127] These pronouns tend to show a masculine "u" and a feminine "i". Like in the English example, feet foot, vowels make the difference between separate words. [34] The Cushitic family is traditionally spit into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic. A main characteristic of Afro-Asiatic languages is the use of vowel changes in word formation. There was additional language contact within the Afro-Asiatic family when Arabs invaded Egypt in 640 A.D. Coptic, a daughter language of ancient Egyptian, had flourished until that time but was replaced eventually by Arabic (Voegelin ,p13). innovation: 'increase' > 'grow in size'), (root #838 + * part. Forms that do not follow the pattern are in parentheses. Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic are also spoken north of the Sahara so it must be assumed that the speakers of these "dialects" migrated north likewise, though perhaps separately from the Boreafrasian speakers (Dalby, p.6). in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic,[130][166] where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. [5] It includes languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africaand parts of the Sahel. Some languages have an additional feminine plural form in -t that is not listed here. [182], Unlike in the Indo-European or Austronesian language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. This page was last edited on 28 August 2022, at 11:13. Sumerian- tamil links ( included links with turkish ( said to be closed to sumerian by panturkists which also said dravidian and turkish cognated when we know dravidians were first people of asia coming from black african L3haplogroup), yeniseian ( intermediate between turkish and chinese and member of sino caucasian family that links chinese to north caucesian langages who according to . [22] Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages. innovation: added meaning 'firm,' hence, figuratively, 'firmly established, strong'), to intertwine, to bind by twining together, to be above, be at the top, form the tip or peak, (Sem., Ch. In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. [131], Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity),[133] while in others, plural forms are ungendered. [140] A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to marked by -u or -i, and the accusative to be marked by -a. Temein suff. Afro-Asiatic is a large language family with great diversity. 'to come so close as to brush against'), (Eg., Sem. May 29th, 2020 - grammar lithuanian is a richly inflected language that has retained some of the plex morphology of its ancestral proto indo european nouns nouns are marked for gender number and case that are fused into one ending there are two genders masculine and feminine with a few neuter nouns there are three numbers singular dual and plural *y: attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix: 2a. *iw- 'cow') (Eg., Sem. [103], A form of long-distance consonant assimilation known as consonant harmony is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization, palatalization, and labialization. *t: . One hypothesis places it in the Levant, as the language of the Natufian hunter-gatherers who were the first to adopt a farming lifestyle more than 10,000 years ago. (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. [168] Prefixes of - (glottal stop) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed. [29] The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. Oko [90], Syllable weight plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word. [174] It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber. p-Central Khoisan Mimi-N innovation: integration of *t dur. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group. suff. [12] Each component of this term was derived from the name of a Biblical son of Noah as detailed in the Book of Genesis: Semitic from his first-born son Shem, and Hamitic from his second son Ham (Genesis 5:32). Gule Because i notice in some cases, they seem to have vowels shifting around quite a bit, akin to the trilateral root systems of the semitic languages. [103][101] The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA;[133] in addition to deriving feminine nouns in many branches, it also functions as a diminutive, pejorative, and/or singulative marker in some languages. innovation: as synonym for #505), (vowel reconstruction uncertain: PAA *u, *ee, or *oo are also possible here; contrary to earlier views, this is surely a distinct root from #503), (Eg., Sem. Afroasiatic (Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasian or Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, or Erythraean is a large language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and parts of the Sahel. as denom. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic. Report Save. ; PC variant *damn-), (Ch., Eg., Sem. [151] Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gbor Takcs, the latter of whom argues for a PAA *ma- that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages. [149], A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns. Defaka [45] Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the Nilotic languages; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group. [179] However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like. The "t-stem" may be reflected in some forms in Hausa; however may also derive from a language internal development and has no cognates elsewhere in Chadic. Kadu p-Bua *y: adjective suffix: 3. * "The Origins of Third Consonants in Semitic Roots: An Internal Reconstruction (Applied to Arabic)," Journal of Afroasiatic Languages 3, 2 (1989): 109-202. The reconstructed consonants for Proto-Afro-Asiatic are p and b, t and d, and k and g. The Egyptian bw meaning place and the Semitic bi meaning in or from are believed to be from the reconstructed root *b- meaning foot or place (ELL, p.51). There are multiple possibilities: Egyptian had already undergone radical changes from Proto-Afroasiatic before it was recorded, the Afroasiatic family has so far been studied with an excessively Semito-centric approach, or Afroasiatic is a typological, not a genetic group of languages. The modern word "Hebrew" is derived from the word "Ivri" (plural "Ivrim"; English: Hebrews), one of several names for the Israelite (Jewish and Samaritan) people. innovation: addition of *b extend., imputing meaning 'to count'), to show, bring to (ones) notice or attention, (Ch., Berber, and Eg. The Subclassification of Afroasiatic (Afrasian) Appendix 1. p-Ukaan London: Routledge, 1990. suff. [196][164] Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple sound correspondences. Mimi-D Many of these roots have other proposed cognates that are not included on the table. in *n, as also in #210) 324. [108] Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. p-Benue-Congo It's impossible to tell exactly how old Proto-Afroasiatic is, or where it was spoken, but there are a few ideas. in a word must match. [178], The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout the Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic),[127] and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. [123], Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic was a tonal language, with tonality subsequently lost in some branches: Christopher Ehret has postulated a tonal system of at least two tonal phonemes, falling tone, rising tone, and possibly a third tone, level tone. US$62.00 (softcover). Anaang in *n, as also in #323), (possible V reconstructions: *a, *aa, *e, or *o), (Sem., Eg., Ch. *kanf-/*kinf-wing: 325. Benfys title was later inverted to make Hamito-Semitic but over time racial connotations were applied to this name (Voegelin, p.13). [130], Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb. If you are not satisfied with 225345861639 [107] Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical lateral obstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. North of the Sahara and the Ethiopian mountains are the Afro-Asiatic languages. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the "free state" or the "construct state". p-Yoruboid 'be, exist'), (root seen also in #983 + probably *s caus. There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches. Also, how do roots work? [68] Greenberg also proposed that Hausa was part of a Chadic branch of Afroasiatic, and that Afroasiatic consisted of five main branches, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. [26] The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. 4 This was Hodge's term for the ancestral proto-language of Proto-Afroasiatic and Proto-Indo-European based on Proto-Lislakh *lis- 'language' + *laxwos 'people'. The Egyptian prefix has a middle voice/intransitive/or passive meaning. ), to extend, stretch out (intr. innovation: *-VC- v. stems > *-CV-), (Eg., Sem. [103][53] In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles. p-Maban [19] Additionally, a majority of specialists consider the Omotic languages to constitute a sixth branch. [138][177] Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape -*ay in addition to -*iy in some cases. The Sumerian and Etruscan languages, usually regarded as language isolates, are thought by some to be Nostratic languages as well. Gemination in particular is one of the typical features of AA. About us. Afro-Asiatic is divided into six branches: Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic, Chadic and Omotic. Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago , that is, between 16,000 and 10,000 BC. [154] In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, and some Chadic languages, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given verb are dependent on the vocalic template. [20], There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. V. V. ven. Dictionary of Languages. [51] The classification within West Semitic remains contested. Tadaksahak, p-Niger-Congo [153][168][h], Some AA branches have what is called a "suffix conjugation", formed by using pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number and a verbal adjective. In the series University of California Publications in Linguistics 126. innovation: 'fold over, bend'), (Eg., Sem. With the exception of its Semitic branch, all branches of the Afroasiatic family are . [15] Hamitic was coined by Ernest Renan in 1855, to refer to languages that seemed similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family. [133], A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. p-Grassfields Central Sudanic (p-Central Sudanicp-Sara-Bongo-BagirmiSinyarBirrip-Mangbetu) p-Heiban [28], Chadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic. The other three are very closely related and it is not hard for, say, a Dane to learn to understand a Swede. Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 June 2016 Alan S. Kaye Article Metrics Save PDF Proto-Afroasiatic is a reconstructed language. [121] For Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic. p-Mande (p-W. Mandep-Mandekanp-Niger-Voltap-S. Mande) [78] An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see Subgrouping) - this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult. [44], The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. Jalaa C. Classification and Index of the Worlds Languages. [112] Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: "back consonants" (glottal, pharyngeal, uvular, laryngeal, and velar consonants), "front consonants" (dental or alveolar consonants), liquid consonants, and labial consonants. The root form of the verb has only three consonants in common. innovation: to spoil > to sour), (Sem., Eg. 6), (Eg., Sem., Cush. The reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic is problematic and . Kanuri ; semantics: egg curves at every point? Root Structure Patterning in Proto . shared innovation: 'move, take' > 'take hold of'), (Cush., Ch., Eg., Sem. Proto-Afroasiatic) was spoken, most agree that it was located within a region of Northeast Africa. PROTO-AFROASIATIC PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM One of the most significant characteristics of Afroasiatic consonantism is the system of triads found in the stops and affri- cates -- each series (except the lateralized affricates) contains three members: a voiceless (aspirated) member, a voiced member, and a glottalized (that is, ejective) member. Omotic is the most controversial member of Afro-Asiatic. Linguistic guesstimates or phylogenetic speculation date the proto-language (and thus the homeland) within a wide range, from 15,000 to 6,000 years ago. [181] Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic. [38] The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770. [9] ( [101] It is generally agreed that only the obstruents had a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereas continuants were voiceless. ; *m > /n/ ([])/_*x), (Sem., Eg. Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left 'Boreafrasian,' the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). An Encyclopedia of Language. The only branch that's actually E is Berber. S. SC Sem. p-Manjaku Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary. [116], There is a large variety of vocalic systems in AA. The "s-causative" may be reflected in Hausa (as -r), however this may be a language internal development. [147][148] Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state," the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. . This name is possibly based upon the root "-b-r" ( . This great divide has made travel difficult so linguistic boundaries tend to be based on either side. [17] The name refers to the fact that this is the only major language family with members in both Africa and Asia. These records make it possible to classify and reconstruct many languages. The languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.[5]. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed, Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of. p-Ogoni p-Surmic p-Mumuye [101][a] The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others;[99] they can be realized variously as glottalized, pharyngealized, uvularized, ejective, and/or implosive consonants in the different branches. [198] Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as "controversial", and Ehret's as "not acceptable to many scholars". in *n, as also in #210), (Sem., Eg. [124] Other scholars argue that Proto-AA had a pitch accent and some branches subsequently developed tone. The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features (e.g. p-Tuu alternative feminine endings *-ay/*-y; corresponding vowel templates for verbal conjugations) which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language (provisionally called "Proto-Berbero-Semitic" by Kossmann & Suchard (2018) and Van Putten (2018)). [81] Christopher Ehret, O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman also argue that archaeology does not indicate a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. . [11], Greenberg reintroduced the name "Afroasiatic" in 1960, a name seemingly coined by Maurice Delafosse (as French afroasiatique) in 1914. [158] Most grammars of AA posit a distinction between perfective and imperfective verbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages. ), (Eg., Sem. Berkeley: University of California Press. Berta [129] Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (pluractionality), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed. crcst test prep; crcst free test questions; paid test; crcst exam prep notes; subscribe [6][7], with the latter two having fallen out of favor in English but still seeing frequent usage in other languages, such as German. p-Daju Proto-Nostratic would have been spoken between 15,000 and 12,000 BCE, in the Epipaleolithic period, close to the end of the last glacial period. n. pref. [195] Writing in 2004, John Huehnergaard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family. [197], There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. [30] Most Chadic languages are located in the Chad basin, with the exception of Hausa. BLACK ATHENA: THE Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (The Fabrication, - $16.27. p-Nubian Thanks for viewing our Ebay listing! [72] Earlier, the first scholar to question to existence of "Hamitic languages" was Marcel Cohen (1924),[9] while skepticism was also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann (1920s and '30s). infix [also tonal shift as found in Chadic cases]), (this root is included because #871 following derives from it), (sing. Since there is written data available from this region, it is easier to reconstruct ancient roots and find common characteristics (ELL, p.51). [169] As there is no evidence for the "prefix conjugation" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic. suff. >I find it odd how Semitic is still Afroasiatic even though it's tied to a non-E haplogroup Egyptian and Semitic are both J. Cushitic is T and Chadic is J/R1b-V88. p-Songhay ), to get up to leave, start out, come or go forth, (Eg., Sem. The Proto-Afroasiatic Consonant System. p-Aroid innovation: addition of *t n. innovation: added sense, 'to listen to'), (Ch., Sem., Berber innovation: specialized meaning 'tooth'; but note presence of that meaning isolated in single Omotic language), (innovation: Sem., Ch. Additional Proposed PAA Roots; Appendix 4. 1 Afro-Asiatic Language Family. [119] Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova instead proposed a six vowel system with a, e, o, i, ([y]), and u. [2] With the exception of its Semitic branch, all branches of the Afroasiatic family are exclusively native to the African continent. [99] Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony. PSom-III. These three groups are classified as being in Africa while Afro-Asiatic is listed under the term Eurasia (Atlas, p.74). [139], Nouns cases are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic. [50], Most authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages, including Hebrew, as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Ge'ez and Amharic. Shabo Greenberg, 1958 D. Cohen,. [166] There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. [34], The Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Ancient Egyptian, which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. ; PS, Eg., Ch. The speakers of Boreafrasian migrated north to an arid Sahara climate, then eventually pushed on west and east. [156], There is no agreement about which tenses or aspects Proto-Afroasiatic might have had. The Atlas of Languages. [10][11], Friedrich Mller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, published in 1876. Root Structure Patterning in Proto-Kartvelian. as ELL). ; Eg., Sem. These include Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Altaic and Dravidian (Atlas, p.74).